Abstract: We present palynological evidence and associated environmental and adaptive inferences from a long sequence of Neanderthal occupations robustly dated between MIS 5 and MIS 3 at Axlor. The cave lies in the southwesternmost sector of the Eurosiberian biogeographic region, in northern Atlantic Iberia. This coastal strip acted as a refugium for temperate taxa under adverse Upper Pleistocene climates, with persistent representation of mixed deciduous forest taxa. Quercus, Corylus, Castanea, Fagus, Taxus, Juglans, Crataegus and Prunus are recorded across nine stadial and interstadial phases. Riparian taxa, including Alnus, Fraxinus and Salix, are well represented, indicating permanent watercourses during most phases. Despite the resilience of temperate forests, marked shifts in landscape structure occurred, modulated by climatic fluctuations. In our record these changes are expressed primarily in forest cover, forest composition and grassland extent. Nonetheless, the region consistently provided a stable niche of exploitable resources for Neanderthal groups between ca. 107-42 ka BP. Axlor thus offers strong evidence for Neanderthal adaptive capacity in both forested (interstadial) and cold, open (stadial) settings. The robustness of the chronological framework and the richness of the pollen dataset make Axlor a key site for understanding the landscapes inhabited by Neanderthals during the Last Glacial Cycle along the southern margin of the Eurosiberian region.
